Knowledge of cross-cultural differences in education is useful for educators in multicultural classrooms (including academic faculty at international business schools), corporate trainers working with multicultural corporations, expatriate teachers, foreign-aid workers, economic development agencies, and expatriates with families. Understanding cultural variations in education systems is similarly beneficial for school counsellors and other mental or physical health professionals working in multicultural environments.

Teacher status

In societal cultures that score higher on Power Distance, teachers are accorded the status of “gurus,” and their role is to transfer their wisdom to students. This contrasts with societal cultures that score lower on Power Distance. In those societies, teachers are afforded the lower status of “experts” who transfer impersonal facts to students.

The nature of the relationship between student and teacher

Reflecting the higher status afforded to teachers in societal cultures that score higher on Power Distance, students in these societies are expected to give teachers respect and deference, even outside of class. In these societies, teachers are never publicly criticised or contradicted. Further, in societies that score higher on Power Distance, teachers should take all initiatives in the classroom, and students will speak only when invited to. In high Power Distance cultures, more educated and less educated persons possess equally authoritarian values.

In contrast, reflecting the lower status afforded to teachers in cultures that score lower on Power Distance, the relationship between teachers and students in these societies is more equal – teachers are shown no particular respect by students outside of school. In these societies, students may argue with teachers and express disagreements and criticisms in the classroom.  Societies that score lower on Power Distance expect initiatives from students. Students in these societies may make uninvited interventions and are expected to ask questions when they do not understand. In low Power Distance cultures, students become increasingly independent from teachers as they proceed through their studies, thus less educated persons in these societies hold more authoritarian values than more educated persons.

In societal cultures that score higher on Uncertainty Avoidance, students will not confess intellectual disagreements with their teachers; intellectual disagreement in these societies is perceived as personal disloyalty. However, students in these societal cultures may seek more feedback. But in societal cultures that score lower on Uncertainty Avoidance, students may express disagreement with their teachers; intellectual disagreement in these societies is considered stimulating and may even be rewarded by teachers.

In societal cultures that report higher scores for In-Group Collectivism, students from the same in-group as the teacher or other school officials expect preferential treatment. In contrast, societal cultures that report higher scores for Individualism, students expect to be treated impartially, and preferential treatment based on background or in-group membership is considered nepotism and immoral.

Preferred teacher attributes

In societal cultures that report higher scores for Masculinity, academic brilliance and reputation are admired in teachers. In contrast, societal cultures that report higher scores for Femininity value friendliness and social skills as important teacher attributes.

Cultures that report higher scores for Uncertainty Avoidance expect teachers to be experts who have all the answers, whereas cultures that report lower scores for Uncertainty Avoidance are more accepting of teachers who may say “I don’t know”.

Focus of education process

Reflecting the higher status afforded to teachers in societal cultures that score higher on Power Distance, the educational process in these societies is teacher-centered – the teacher outlines the intellectual paths to be followed. In contrast, the educational process in societies that score lower on Power Distance is student-centered – students are expected to find their intellectual paths.

In societal cultures that report higher scores for Individualism, the purpose of education is to teach students “how to learn” which is a skill that helps them to cope with unforeseen circumstances. In contrast, in societal cultures that report higher scores for Collectivism, the purpose of education is to teach students “how to do”, or more specifically the skills that they require for acceptance into the group.

Student age

In societies with higher scores for Individualism, learning is assumed to be life-long, whereas, in societies that score higher on In-Group Collectivism, learning is one-off and reserved for the young.

Focus of educational policy

In societies that report higher scores for Power Distance, the educational policy focuses on universities. Governments in these societies spend relatively more on universities than secondary schools, maintaining a polarisation between the elites and the uneducated. In these societies, only a select few have access to higher education. In contrast, in societies that report lower scores for Power Distance, the educational policy focuses on secondary schools, fostering wider educational enrolment and the creation of a large middle class with higher educational levels.

Discipline

In societies that report higher scores for Power Distance, corporal punishment is more acceptable and often considered good for the development of the child’s character. In contrast, in societies that report lower scores for Power Distance, corporal punishment is less acceptable and typically considered to be child abuse.

Classroom dynamics (the nature of student interactions)

In societies that report higher scores for Individualism, students are expected to speak up as individuals in class and prefer to work alone. In contrast, in societies that report higher scores In-Group Collectivism, students prefer to work in groups, and only speak up in class when they are sanctioned by the group.

In addition, classrooms in societies high in Individualism, confrontation and open discussions of conflicts are considered salutary. In contrast, in societies that report higher scores In-Group Collectivism, harmony and maintaining face are important and confrontations and conflicts are avoided.

In classrooms in societies that score high on Individualism, students are less likely to make in-group vs. out-group distinctions and group formation is more ad hoc and flexible, based on skills or friendships rather than shared backgrounds. In contrast, in societies that report higher scores In-Group Collectivism, students make in-group vs. out-group distinctions more frequently, and group formation is more rigid / less flexible – students form enduring subgroups within the class consisting of students from similar backgrounds.

In societies that report higher scores for Masculinity or Assertiveness, classmates compete with each other for academic excellence. Students in these societies highlight their achievements to other students. In contrast, in societies that report higher scores for Femininity or lower scores for Assertiveness, classmates express ridicule or are jealous of high-achievers. Students in these societies play down their academic achievements to other students.

Academic achievement

In societies that report higher scores for Power Distance, the quality of learning depends on the excellence of the teacher. In contrast, in societies that report lower scores for Power Distance, learning outcomes depend on the extent of two-way communication between the teacher and student, and the excellence of the student.

The increased academic effort characteristic of students in cultures that are Long-Term or Future Orientated leads to higher levels of academic success. This is consistent with the finding that cultures that report higher scores for Future Orientation tend to have higher levels of general education in the population. Similarly, cultures that score lower in Humane Orientation tend to have higher adult literacy rates. In contrast, students in cultures that are more Short-Term Orientated or have lower scores for Future Orientation report weaker academic performance. Again, this is consistent with the finding that cultures that report lower scores for Future Orientation tend to have lower levels of general education in the population. Similarly, cultures that score high on Humane Orientation tend to have lower adult literacy rates.

Within societal cultures, less educated individuals tend to hold more collectivistic values, wherea more educated individuals tend to hold more individualistic values.

Academic strengths

Societies that report higher scores for Pragmatism (e.g. East Asia) are associated with better performance in mathematics and science that is largely attributed to increased effort. In addition, students in these societies display a talent for applied concrete sciences (well-defined problems with explicitly stated goals, formal rather than open-ended problems). In contrast, societies that report higher scores for Normative Orientation are associated with weaker performance in mathematics and science that is largely attributed to lower levels of effort. Students in these societies display a talent for theoretical, abstract sciences. Similarly, societal cultures that report higher scores for Future Orientation tend to display a higher ability in analytical thinking, probably as a consequence of higher levels of general education, whereas societal cultures that report lower scores for Future Orientation tend to display a weaker ability for analytical thinking.

Value of education

In societies that report higher scores for Individualism, academic qualifications increase economic worth and self-respect, and provide a sense of achievement. In contrast, in societies that report higher scores for In-Group Collectivism, academic qualifications are pursued for entry into higher status groups and bestow honor to the holder and his or her in-group. In these societies, the social acceptance that comes with academic achievements is more valued than the personal satisfaction that comes from mastering a subject. As a consequence of this, there is a greater temptation to acquire diplomas on the black market in societies that score higher on Collectivism.

Also, societies that report higher scores for Performance Orientation believe that education is critical for personal success. In these cultures and also in cultures that score high on Assertiveness, status is related to achievements. This contrasts to societies that report lower scores for Performance Orientation – members of these societies value “attending the right school” as a success criterion. In these societies and societies that report lower scores for Assertiveness, status is ascribed by background rather than performance.

Student motivations

In societies that report higher scores for Masculinity or Assertiveness, students strive for academic excellence, and highlight and overrate their own performance (ego-boosting), whereas in societies that report higher scores for Femininity or lower scores for Assertiveness, students aim for average performance, and play down and underrate their own performance (ego-effacement). For students in Masculine orientated societies, academic failure is considered a disaster and may even lead to suicide. In contrast, students in Feminine orientated societies consider academic failure a minor incident.

In Masculine orientated societies, students choice of career is based on job opportunities. In contrast, students in Feminine orientated societies are more likely to base their career choice on intrinsic interests.

In societal cultures that report higher scores in Long-Term or Future Orientation, or higher scores for Restraint, students apply greater effort, investment and perseverance in education to achieve future aspirations. In contrast, in societal cultures that report greater Short-Term orientation, lower scores for Future Orientation, or higher scores for Indulgence, students apply less effort, investment, and perseverance to education and are more focused on employment rather than investment in further study.

Role of competitive sport in curriculum

In societies that report higher scores for Masculinity, competitive sports are part of the curriculum, whereas, in societies that report higher scores for Femininity, competitive sports are extracurricular.

Gender differences

In societal cultures that report higher scores for Masculinity, boys and girls study different subjects and boys receive priority in educational opportunities. This is consistent with lower literacy rates, level of education, and rates of education participation for females in cultures that report lower scores for Gender Egalitarianism. In contrast, in societal cultures that report higher scores for Femininity, boys and girls partly study the same subjects and are given equal educational opportunities. This is consistent with the higher literacy rates and levels of education participation for females in societies that score higher in Gender Egalitarianism. In these cultures, males and females achieve similar levels of education.

Further, in societal cultures that report higher scores for Masculinity, women more often teach young children and men more often teach at universities, whereas in societal cultures that report higher scores for Femininity, women, and men both teach young children and at universities.

Nature of instruction

In societal cultures that report higher scores in Uncertainty Avoidance, students prefer more structured learning situations (precise objectives, detailed assignments, and strict timetables). Students in these cultures are concerned with finding the right answer and expect to be rewarded for accuracy. In contrast, in societal cultures that report lower scores in Uncertainty Avoidance, students prefer more open-ended learning situations (vague objectives, broad assignments, and no timetables). Students in these cultures are concerned with good discussions for which there is not necessarily one answer and expect to be rewarded for originality.

Attribution of performance

In societal cultures that report higher scores in Uncertainty Avoidance or Normative Orientation, students attribute academic achievements and failures to circumstances or luck, whereas in societal cultures that report lower scores in Uncertainty Avoidance or higher scores on Pragmatic Orientation, academic achievements or failures are attributed to a person’s effort and ability.

Parental involvement

In societal cultures that report higher scores in Uncertainty Avoidance, parents are rarely consulted -teachers inform parents, whereas, in societal cultures that report lower scores in Uncertainty Avoidance, teachers involve parents and actively seek parental input.

Language

Language differences can be a significant complication in the classroom. When teachers and students do not share the same native tongue, communication difficulties threaten successful instruction and learning. This is particularly problematic when the instruction is in the native tongue of the teacher rather than the student. Moreover, studies have shown that learning outcomes can vary as a function of the language of instruction. At an INSEAD business school campus in France, the same executive program was taught to one group of students in French, and to another group of students in English. Both groups consisted of students of several different nationalities. Although the content of the program was the same for both groups, the language of instruction differed and this had implications for how the two groups responded to the material. When the case study was discussed in French, the students offered highly intellectual comments but few practical solutions. However, when the case was discussed in English, student responses were far more pragmatic. Moreover, both groups of students responded more positively to original rather than translated content.

Attention

Another complication in a multicultural learning environment involves the use of irrelevant content. Students attend to and remember information that is relevant to their cultural context, but are less engaged when they are unable to relate to the content.

Related

• Cultural Intelligence for Universities
• Understanding cultural value differences
• Cultural Intelligence and Inclusion
• Six strategies for intercultural effectiveness
• Cultural fluency: It’s easier than you think
• Where are you on your cultural intelligence journey?
• You’re cramping my style: Cultural differences in non-verbal communication
• Emotional intelligence doesn’t translate across cultures